CRITICAL TERMS North-American Narrative

TRANSCENDENTALISM (In the words of Emerson): "The Transcendentalist adopts the whole connection of spiritual doctrine. He believes in miracle, in the perpetual openness of the human; he believes in inspiration. The use of that term by Immanuel Kant, who replied to the skeptical philosophy of Locke, which insisted that there was nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the experience of the senses, by showing that there was a very important class of ideas, which did not come by experience, but through which experience was acquired; that these were intuitions of the mind itself; and he denominated them Transcendental forms.”

NEOPLATOMISM: A philosophical system developed which is based on Platonism with elements of mysticism and some Christian concepts and posits a single source from which all existence emanates and with which an individual soul can be mystically united.

AESTHETIC VISION: Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature art, and the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensorial and emotional values. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature." The aesthetic universals are “virtuosity”, “pleasure” “style”, “criticism”, “imitation” and “special focus.”

AMERICAN ROMANCE: It tends to prefer action to character, and action will be freer in a romance than in a novel, although in the static romances of Hawthorne, he uses the allegorical and moral forms. Characters will not be related to society (human beings will be shown in an ideal relation). They may become profoundly involved in some way, as in Hawthorne or Melville, but it will be a deep and narrow, an obsessive, involvement. In American romances, the romancer will probably would arouse our interest in a character by enveloping it in mystery. Astonishing events may occur, and these are likely to have a symbolic or ideological, rather than a realistic.

EXCEPTIONALISM: Isa described as an approach to America that represents freedom from a common lot, which is extended in the 19^th century to include Transcendentalist self-reliance. American exceptionalism maintains that their beginnings as a nation, historical evolution, as well as religious and political organizations and cultural institutions, make them an incomparable nation. The term "American exceptionalism" is used to describe the mode of telling the American story and histories as a unique and ahistorical. Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlett Letter

helps that the historical beginnings of American exceptionalism sit exactly in the center of Hawthorne's 17^th century Boston. Today's reader is aware of the place exceptionalism, specifically in America's relationship to god, faith and moral superiority, held in the Hester's community. Boston's treatment of Hester exhibits the moral high ground taken by early colonizers. This idea of the individual as superhuman is seen furthermore in the Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale's speech and physical self-flagellation. Though Hawthorne tells us he is a "lost and desperate man," Dimmesdale is nonetheless held up in Boston as the ideal of religiosity and humanity. Hawthorne uses him to represent the disconnection between the ideal of the individual in the American exceptionalist view, and the reality of such an exceptionalist ideology being enforced on the individual. Hawthorne, failing in the characters’ struggle with the American exceptionalism of their time, delivers a harsh critique of that philosophy. However, Moby Dick takes its own look at the ideology. Melville's narrator, Ishmael, has an exceptionalist view of himself in the world. During his first encounters with Queequeg. Ishmael is uncomfortable with this foreign threat, at first, especially in his obvious physical and masculine superiority. Eventually, as Ishmael gets to know Queequeg's motivations, his exceptionalism breaks down.  Any doubts to Melville's opinions on American exceptionalism are answered with a close investigation of Captain Ahab and his ship. The Pequod is a modern critic for the exploration of American exceptionalism; a multi-national and cross-cultural ship, with an inherent purpose of global economic superiority.

Ahab follows his mission at all costs. Ahab displays the height of American exceptionalism, in all of its invincible glory, and Melville portrays him as doomed for the mouth of the whale and the bottom of the ocean. Most striking is the fate of the rest of the boat. Ahab even manages to convince the men on the Pequod that the voyage of destruction for his own selfish purposes will worthy of their commitment. In both The Scarlet Letter and Moby Dick's socio-political commentary underlines the anti- American-exceptionalism view.

REALISM: Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude," realism is a literary technique against romanticism. The interest in scientific method, the systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all affected the rise of realism.  Realism focuses on the lower classes is considered naturalism. In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of the century during which Mark Twain and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an exploration of American lives in various contexts. As the United States grew rapidly after the Civil War, the increasing rates of democracy and literacy, the rapid growth in industrialism and urbanization, an expanding population base due to immigration, and a relative rise in middle-class provided a fertile literary environment for readers interested in understanding these rapid shifts in culture.

SLAVE NARRATIVE: Narratives of slavery recounted the personal experiences of ante-bellum African Americans who had escaped from slavery and found their way to safety in the North. An essential part of the anti-slavery movement, these narratives drew on Biblical allusion and imagery, the rhetoric of abolitionism, the traditions of the captivity narrative, and the spiritual autobiography in appealing to their often white audiences. Some of these narratives bore a preface attesting to their authenticity and to the sufferings described within. Its purposes are to arouse the sympathy of readers, and to emphasize traditional Christian religious ideas and the cruelty of individual slave owners.

GOTHIC: Its characteristics are: An atmosphere of gloom, terror or mystery - Elements of the uncanny that challenge reality, including mysterious events that cause the protagonist to question the evidence of his or her senses and the presence of seemingly supernatural beings - An exotic setting isolated in time or space from contemporary life, often a ruined mansion or castle - Events, often violent or macabre, that cannot be hidden or rationalized despite the efforts of the narrator - An unnatural relation between the orders of things that are usually separate, such as life and death, good and evil, dream life and reality, or rationality and madness - A hidden or double reality.  Poe represents this process symbolically in “The Fall of the House of Usher” in the violent death-embrace of Madeline and Roderick Usher. An emblem of the hidden secret, Madeline, who has escaped from the tomb where she has been buried alive, as she clutches her brother Roderick, who by pretending a surface normality, has refused to acknowledge his culpability in burying her.

An interrupted narrative form that relies on multiple methods (inserted documents, letters, dreams, fragments of the story told by several narrators) to tell the tale. "Gothic romance flourished through the early 19^th century. Authors of such novels set their stories in the medieval period, often in a gloomy castle replete with ghosts, mysterious disappearances, and supernatural occurrences; their principal aim was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery, cruelty, and horror. The term "gothic" also deals with aberrant psychological states.

IMPRESSIONISM: An approach to storytelling that attempts to show how the world seems to the consciousness of a character with a limited point of view. What the reader reads on the page is the illusion of an impression of reality. Impressionist literature tends to emphasize the way characters experience the world, not necessarily the way the world actually is. As a result, this approach often deals with ambiguity. For some writers, impressions are all that we have to make sense of the world because we are on the outside looking in, trying to interpret our surroundings.

C.C EEUU about WARS

The United States in the World War I. Since the beginning of World War I in 1914, the United States, under President Wilson, had maintained neutrality. By the time of Wilson’s reelection victory, the war had left millions dead, cities and economies in ruins, and no decisive victory in sight for any side. In 1916, Wilson sent diplomatic notes to the governments of every nation involved: Germany opened immediate peace negotiations; France, however, responded by launching a new attack against the Germans in Verdun; and British Prime minister rejected Wilson’s initiative directly. In 1917, Germany announced that it was authorized to sink all ships that they provided aid of the Allies. In response, President Wilson broke off diplomatic relations with Germany.  Although Wilson tried hard to keep the United States neutral, by 1917, the situation had changed significantly, and he requested a declaration of war. U.S. troops were ferried across the Atlantic, first to Britain and then on to France. In 1918, President Wilson gave a speech before the U.S. Congress in which he defined necessary requirements in order to restore and maintain peace in Europe and the rest of the world: Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”: the final point called for establishing a “general association” of the world’s states, with each to have equal representation regardless of size or strength. There was a large time gap between the U.S. declaration of war and the actual entrance of U.S. troops in combat on the front, although it remained an independent participant.

The United States in the World War II: Although the United States remained officially neutral during the first two years of World War II, Roosevelt’s administration was not indifferent to the conflict: the United States provided material support first to Britain and later to the Soviet Union. American people also paid close attention to the events developing in the Pacific. U.S. officials knew that the Japanese were planning something against them, especially Admiral Turner, who had been concerned that the Pearl Harbor base was particularly vulnerable to attacks. The attack on Pearl Harbor killed 2,402 Americans, destroyed 8 battleships and 180 aircraft, and sank 11 warships. After Roosevelt went to request a declaration of war against Japan, the United States was at war with both Japan and Germany and into alliance with Britain.

American view of World War II. Americans are taught from early that World War II was all about Pearl Harbor, that they went in to Europe, and then had no choice and blew up two entire cities in Japan. However, the reality is that the United States’ allies suffered brutality. Germany was taking over Europe, except the few neutral countries and Great Britain, which eventually had no choice but defend itself. Finally, Roosevelt realized there was no choice but to enter the war. Many nations (large and small) came together to fight against tyranny during World War II, and their commitment and sacrifice to that cause were enormous. After conquering Europe, Hitler would have attacked North America. Fortunately, this never happened.

Pearl Harbor. The war in the Pacific began in 1941, when warplanes from Japan launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Navy base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. By this time, Japan had already been at war with China for several years. After the Pearl Harbor attack, Japan began a massive campaign of expansion throughout the Southeast Asia–Pacific region, and it provoked a declaration of war by the United States on Japan the very next day. The next year, the United States and Japan engaged in a series of naval battles, such as the Battle of Midway, in which Japan suffered a catastrophic defeat. The “Manhattan Project” was the code name for the U.S. government’s secret program to develop an atomic bomb. After a difficult decision by President Harry S Truman, U.S. forces dropped two atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

Dwight D. Eisenhower. A U.S. Army general who held the position of supreme Allied commander in Europe. Eisenhower was best known for his work in the Allied invasion of Europe. After the war, he was a very popular figure in the United States and was elected to two terms as U.S. president, taking office in 1953.

Harry S Truman. The 33rd U.S. president, who succeeded Franklin D. Roosevelt when he died in 1945. Truman, who led the country through the last few months of World War II, is best known for making the controversial decision to use two atomic bombs against Japan. After the war, Truman was crucial in the implementation of the Marshall Plan, which greatly accelerated Western Europe’s economic recovery.

Cold War - Early Years

The cold war began with the struggle for control of the politics of these nations. The Western democracies, led by the United States, were determined to stop the spread of communism and Soviet power. While not being able to stop the Soviets in Eastern Europe, the U.S. and Britain were determined to prevent communist regimes from achieving power in Western Europe. During the Second World War, communist parties throughout Western Europe had gained popularity in their resistance to Nazi occupation.

Truman succeeded Roosevelt as president before the end of the war, but had little experience in international affairs.

The first and most difficult case was Poland, the eastern half of which had been invaded and occupied by the USSR. Moscow demanded a government subject to Soviet influence; Washington wanted a more independent, representative government following the Western model. Relations deteriorated from that point onward.

Public statements defined the beginning of the Cold War. In 1946 Stalin declared that international peace was impossible "under the present capitalist development of the world economy." Former British Prime Minister Churchill delivered a dramatic speech, with Truman sitting on the platform. Churchill said, "an iron curtain has descended across the Continent." Britain and the United States, he declared, had to work together to counter the Soviet threat.

Truman was the first American president to fight the Cold War. Marshall was the principal American military architect of Allied victory, and special representative of the president to China. He returned to Washington to propose a strategy that concentrated on Europe.

In 1947, the Truman Doctrine was a plan to give money and military aid to countries threatened by communism. "It must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." The Truman Doctrine effectively stopped communists from taking control of Greece and Turkey. In 1948 the Marshall Plan provided financial and economic assistance to the nations of Western Europe, and the popularity of communist parties declined.

During the closing months of World War II, Soviet military forces occupied all of Central and Eastern Europe. Moscow used its military power to support the efforts of the Communist parties in Eastern Europe and crush the democratic parties. The process concluded in 1948.

The conflict came to center on the future of Germany. The Soviets blocked all ways into the western part of Berlin, so President Truman ordered military planes to fly coal, food, and medicine to the city, receiving help from Britain and France.

Cold War in the 1950s

The United States dominated global affairs in the years immediately after World War II. Victorious in that great struggle, its homeland undamaged, the nation was confident. US leaders wanted to maintain the democratic structure they had defended at tremendous cost and to share the benefits of prosperity as widely as possible. But gradually some began to question dominant assumptions. In the 1960s, politically active students protested the nation's role abroad, particularly in the corrosive war in Vietnam.

The passing in 1953 of Soviet leader Stalin gave the new American president, Eisenhower, a chance to deal with new Soviet leaders. Eisenhower became the first Republican president in 20 years: a war hero rather than a career politician, he had a natural touch that made him widely popular. After serving as Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in Western Europe during World War II, Eisenhower functioned as a strong public spokesman.

Eisenhower proposed that the Americans and Soviets agree to let their military bases be inspected by air by the other side. After all, the leaders of the world's most powerful nations had shaken hands. Rather, a more aggressive policy of liberation was necessary.

Eisenhower's basic commitment to contain Communism remained, and to that end he increased American reliance on a nuclear shield. The United States had created the first atomic bombs. In 1950 Truman had authorized the development of a new and more powerful hydrogen bomb. In practice, however, the nuclear option could be used only against extremely critical attacks.

Cold War tensions increased over the years. The changes came as both sides actively tried to influence political and economic developments around the world. For example, the Soviet Union provided military, economic, and technical aid to communist governments in Asia. The United States then helped eight Asian nations fight communism by establishing the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. In the middle 1950s, the United States began sending military advisers to help South Vietnam defend itself against communist North Vietnam.

The Cold War also affected the Middle East. The Suez Crisis was a political victory for the Soviets. When the Soviet Union supported Egypt, it gained new friends in the Arab world.

Cold War in the 1960s

Kennedy followed Eisenhower as president in 1961. During his early days in office, Cuban exiles invaded Cuba. They wanted to oust the communist government of Castro. The United States failed to send military planes to protect them during the invasion, and their mission failed.

In Europe, East Germany's communist government built a wall separating the eastern and western parts of the city of Berlin. Guards shot at anyone who tried to flee by climbing over.

During Kennedy's second year, America discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba, but Khruschchev agreed to remove the missiles if the United States agreed not to interfere in Cuba. Relations between east and west also improved when Nixon was president.

The new Soviet leaders began to provide substantial military and political support in the war against the US; Mao Tse-tung reacted by adopting an even more extreme position because he was unwilling to cooperate with the "modern revisionists".

Cold War in the 1970s

Determined to achieve "peace with honor," Nixon ordered strong American offensive actions, and this led to another round of protests and demonstrations.

By the fall of 1972, although American troops departed, the war lingered on into the spring of 1975, when Congress cut off assistance to South Vietnam and North Vietnam consolidated its control over the entire country. The war left Vietnam devastated and left the United States traumatized.

The "Shanghai Communique" signed during that visit of Nixon to Beijing established a new U.S. policy: that there was one China, that Taiwan was a part of China, and that a peaceful settlement of the dispute of the question by the Chinese themselves was a U.S. interest.

He held several cordial meetings with Soviet leader Brezhnev in which they agreed to limit stockpiles of missiles, cooperate in space, and ease trading restrictions.

Not opposed to African-American civil rights on principle, Nixon was wary of large federal civil rights bureaucracies. Nonetheless, his administration vigorously enforced court orders on school desegregation even as it courted Southern white voters.

In foreign policy, Ford adopted Nixon's strategy of detente. Perhaps its major manifestation was the in which the United States and Western European nations effectively recognized Soviet hegemony in Eastern Europe in return for Soviet affirmation of human rights (1975).

The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan killed the treaty.

CULTURA Y CIVILIZACIÓN EEUU

The Mayflower Compact represents another cog in the wheel that slowly ground America towards a set of values that would form their future government.

It began as a skirmish aboard the Mayflower. American land was governed by England. It was from the lack of governance that the Mayflower Compact arose. Many see it as America's first constitution, as the language contained in it was chosen by those that would be governed by it. In addition, the land was held by no foreign nation.

The four main concepts imparted by the Mayflower Compact are as follows:

1. A deep faith in God and His divine guidance.

2. Loyalty to the native England and her King.

3. Citizens to be viewed as equals in the sight of God

4. An intent to establish equal laws upon which would be build a democratic form of government a first for history.

41 men signed the compact. Of these forty-one, a few stand out due to their relevance to the successful establishment of the Plymouth community and their contribution to the Compact that would serve as a guiding post for a new government.

The Mayflower, the Plymouth Colony and the Mayflower Compact lead the formation of a new nation. 

The poem “The New Colossus” has become synonymous with the Statue of Liberty. It was in fact read at the 1886 opening of the Statue.

The Statue of Liberty in the beginning was not intended as a symbol of immigration; it was a gift from France to the United States in commemoration of one hundred years of democracy. However, the Statue of Liberty had not yet gained its status as a symbol of immigration. In fact, throughout much of the 19th century the never ending tide of immigration led to increased tensions and hostilities, especially in New York.

Lazarus’s own experiences influenced her daughter Emma‘s rhetorical writings. Her father, a Sephardic Jewish immigrant, had settled in New York as an exile from Portugal and through the gifts of her new nation had enjoyed the benefits of education in literature. For Lazarus, her activism was centered on the open acceptance of America as the “Mother of Exiles.”

 When Lazarus was offered the podium she wished to use the opportunity to voice her opinions. The “Colossus” is the symbol of the United States and what it should represent. For Lazarus, America is a land without European “ancient lands”. ” It is instead the open arms of salvation for those that have been victims of the old world.”

Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments echoes the language and structure of the Declaration of Independence's preamble. Its opening justifies the actions of those who support women's rights. Stanton uses the religious language of the Declaration of Independence when she refers to “nature's God” and points out that the rights women are demanding come not from government but from “nature” as well as the Supreme Being.

Stanton goes on to state, “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal.” This ringing proclamation comes directly from the Declaration of Independence, with only the words “and women” added. Women, like men, are entitled to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” and the government was instituted to make sure that all people are guaranteed these rights.

It was signed by sixty-eight women and thirty-two men.

On Jan. 1, 1863, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln declared free all slaves residing in territory in rebellion against the federal government. This Emancipation Proclamation actually freed few people. It did not apply to slaves in border states and in southern areas. Naturally, the states in rebellion did not act on Lincoln's order. But the proclamation did show Americans-- and the world--that the civil war was now being fought to end slavery.

Lincoln had been reluctant to come to this position. A believer in white supremacy, he initially viewed the war only in terms of preserving the Union. As pressure for abolition mounted in Congress and the country, however, Lincoln became more sympathetic to the idea. Although the Emancipation Proclamation did not end slavery in America--this was achieved by the passage of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution in, 1865--it did make that accomplishment a basic war goal and a virtual certainty.

David Walker's Appeal stands as a fusion of history, advocacy of human rights, and theological arguments. Its central call is for whites, as well as blacks, to observe ethical and political values: justice, freedom, and dignity. Walker calls for direct action predominantly. He clearly argues that if whites were not prepared to emancipate blacks, then blacks should seek their own release, renouncing "death-like apathy".

Walker's Appeal is always prophetic. It stresses God's call for justice and righteousness and his care and concern for enslaved blacks. Slavery is represented as an abomination before the Lord.

Following a "Preamble", the pamphlet is divided into four "Articles" detailing African American sufferings at the hands of "Slavery," "Ignorance," "the Preachers of the Religion of Jesus Christ," and "the Colonizing Plan." Attacks are launched in turn upon slavery's barbaric cruelty, blacks' educational deprivations, white Christian theological hypocrisy, and the way that African colonization, by reducing free blacks' population levels, undermined their ability to promote effective resistance. Although the predominant invocation is to God, the Appeal also consistently invokes the natural-rights discourse. Thus, whites are represented in the also as "natural" enemies.

Walker was promoted by the Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1823 by Thomas Clarkson and others. It not only highlights the geopolitical dimensions of slavery and racism, their evil and unnatural consequences, and the rise of worldwide resistance, but also embarrasses white America by highlighting how Britons supported liberty in 1830 much better than did proslavery Americans, whose arguments proposed that blacks were intellectually weak and primitive. Walker's goal was to counter such incoherent arguments, part theological, part "natural”.

Thomas Jefferson was his opponent, one whose support legitimated contemporary white attacks on African American's capacities by endorsing the idea that "nature" is a root cause of blacks' enslavement. Walker then stresses the importance of countering such a prominent voice: "unless we try to refute Mr. Jefferson's arguments respecting us, we will only establish them".

Walker's Appeal is part of a long tradition of African American intellectual challenges to white epistemic authority. Even though Walker expected his primary audience to be black, he was well aware that whites would take an interest.

The whole pamphlet stands as a self-reflexive demonstration of blacks' essential humanity by offering a mixture of emotions (anger, hate, love), argument, and reason. Walker's implicit point is that African Americans both experience human emotions and exercise reason perfectly well. By making an "appeal" to these capacities, Walker demonstrates that African Americans self-evidently possess them, despite the rise of scientific racism's propaganda.

Blacks must fight ideologically, politically, and even physically to oppose racism and secure freedom. To do this is mere self-defense. Such self-defense must depend upon unity and be accompanied by systematic education to counter.

The Appeal stands as an early manifestation of radical black Christianity. Walker may only develop Black Nationalist thought rather than found it, but his Appeal's publication marks a decisive advance in militant African American abolitionist and antiracist campaigning.

In the first paragraph of Thomas Paine’s article, Common Sense, he states that society is produced by our wants while government by our wickedness. Thomas Paine goes further on explaining that every society is blessings while governments in their best state are evil (he is criticizing for even the existence of government).

Thomas Paine goes on comparing the two different governments: absolute and constitution of England. He even says that the absolute government has advantage over the constitution because it is simple while the England’s is too complex.

Paine explains that Britain was binding America like a tyranny. First of all, the main purpose of creating America was to separate from the Great Britain in order to have their own way of life. However, what Britain thought of that incident was that they were just being loyal to England, trying to bring back goods. In the beginning, the colonists were just establishing, meaning that they were in weak position. The Britain taking a use of the colonist’s weakness puts millions of slaves to America to benefit themselves of all the crops. Also, England even taxes America for many things, of course making the colonists angry. And Thomas Paine realizing this represents Britain’s tyranny control as a type of slavery.

Lastly, another of Paine’s statement is that man did not enter society to become worse but to have his rights secured.

The Declaration of Independence (In congress, July 4, 1776) is one of the most important in American history, set for the decision of the 13 American colonies to separate from England in the late 1700's. It also stated the principles under which the new nation would be governed. The Declaration of Independence was finally adopted on July 4, 1776, celebrated ever since as the nation's birthday.

Few people were surprised when the colonies declared themselves an independent nation. The Revolutionary War against Britain had already begun and many battles had been fought when, in June 1776, the Continental Congress appointed 5 of its members to write a Declaration of Independence. The 5 were Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman. Adams was later to be America's second president and Jefferson was to be the third. Franklin was one of the patriots and leaders in the colonies.

The Declaration begins “We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”.

The document goes on to say in clear language that the purpose of a government is to secure these rights and that the government receives its powers from the consent of the people it governs. When the government misuses its power, it is the right of the people to change it or abolish it and to set up a new government that will serve them better. The central idea of the Declaration of Independence is that governments should be the servants and not the masters of the people.

The Declaration of Independence marked America’s final revolt against Britain. Moreover, this document remains one of the finest and most influential single statements of the “rights of the people”.

Fredrick Jackson Turner’s thesis entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" proposed that the American frontier explained why America developed in a distinctly different manner than its European progenitors. He believed the fluid frontier situation faced new and unpredictable problems.

The Turner Thesis and the Four Frontiers (fur trading, mining, ranching, and farming/urban): When the first Americans arrived in the New World, they were forced to confront new challenges, climates, and large tracts of land, all unlike what they knew in Europe. While, initially they thought and acted like Europeans, the conditions encountered in the New World forced them to adapt to new ways of doing things, and react to the limitations of the geography they encountered. It was this confrontation on the edge of civilization and the savage wilderness, according to Turner, which forged the American character. This process produced a strong individualism. As following generations moved further west, they shed the institutions, class distinctions, churches, and established governments of their past, and in the process they became more democratic and free.

Turner recognized the roots of American civilization lay in European migration to the New World, but he believed the major distinctive arising from this process was democracy. As these hardy souls traveled west they somehow managed to survive: American democracy came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time it touched a new frontier.

They further contend that the idea of "homogeneity" was of two types: a similar level of social and economic status and of similar aspirations, but also a lack or absence of any kind of community leadership structure, so democracy became a necessity. The need to work together as a community.

American experience was reliant on Puritan beliefs and codes of behavior. William Bradford's Of Plymouth Plantation describes the trials experienced by Pilgrims in England, Holland, and North America from 1620 to 1647. In it, Bradford regards his fellow Pilgrims as chosen people destined to fulfill God's divine plan who are, in essence, repeating the biblical history of the Israelites. The most widely recognized section of the book is chapter IX, the part of Bradford's story that tells "Of their Voyage, and how they Passed the Sea; and of their Safe Arrival at Cape Cod." The premise of the chapter is that God provided divine guardianship over the Puritans as they made their way to North America, just as he did for the wandering Israelites before finding the promised land of Canaan.

Slavery. Africans became slaves in the American Colonies during the 1600's. Most of them worked in mines or on plantations, while some became servants. People were getting more slaves in the South where large plantations grew cotton. These plantations needed many workers to take care of the farms. Plantation slaves in the 1800's were called field hands, who worked the longest. On the other hand, some slaves worked in factories while others became construction workers on canals and railroads. Some even worked hard in mines. In some cases slaves were released from their owners when the owner died leaving a will saying they were free because of their good work and loyalty. The slave states had approximately 4 million slaves by 1860 and made up one-third of the South's population. In the 1700's, religious leaders and philosophers in North America and Europe began saying that slavery was wrong, especially during the Revolutionary War in America (1775-1783). George Washington and Thomas Jefferson even spoke out against slavery. Throughout the South, most people remained supportive of slavery. Abolitionists started a movement in the 1800's to try to end slavery. Some southerners involved in the movement quarreled that slavery was like "the law of nature" which allowed the strong to rule the weak. By 1860, almost all southerners thought slavery should continue. Slavery was abolished in the United States in 1865.

The Southern Argument for Slavery. Defenders of slavery argued that in the South, reliance on slave labor was the foundation of their economy. The cotton economy would collapse. The tobacco crop would dry in the fields. Rice would cease being profitable. They also argued that if all the slaves were freed, there would be widespread unemployment and chaos. This would lead to anarchy. They argued for the continuation of the status quo, which was providing for stability for the slaveholding class and for all free people who enjoyed the payment of the slave society. Some slaveholders believed that African Americans were biologically inferior to their masters. Defenders of slavery argued that slavery had existed throughout history and was the natural state of mankind. The Greeks had slaves, the Romans had slaves, and the English had slavery until very recently. Defenders of slavery noted that in the New Testament, Paul returned a runaway slave to his master, and Jesus never spoke out against it. They argued that by comparison with the poor of Europe and the workers in the Northern states, that slaves were better cared for. They said that their owners would protect them when they were sick and aged. Who was the minister in the 60s said that the abolitionists were Atheists, Socialists, Communists or Red Republicans, and the slaveholders were friends of order and regulated freedom.

Independence War. Francis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. Acting with Continental Army, he was an adversary of the British in their occupation of South Carolina in 1780. "The Patriot" is one of the top 10 historically misleading movies, where the fictional character Benjamin Martin describes violence he committed in the French and Indian War.

The “I have a dream” speech by Martin Luther King is recognized as one of the best speeches ever given. In 1963, ‘I Have a Dream’ speech was dramatically delivered from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. His rhetoric demanding racial justice and an integrated society became a motto for the black community and is as familiar as the US Declaration of Independence. His words gave the nation a vocabulary to express what was happening. The key message in the speech is that all people are created equal and, although not the case in America at the time, M. L. King felt it must be the case for the future. As well as rhythm and frequent repetition, alliteration is a hallmark device, used to bang home key points. The first half portrays not an idealized American dream but a picture of an American nightmare of racial injustice. It calls for action (“Now is the time” / “we can never be satisfied”). The second half of the speech paints the dream of a better, fairer future of racial harmony and integration. The most famous paragraph carries the theme “I have a dream” and the phrase is repeated constantly. While the address has a very strong message for white people and hints at revolution, King’s words are mostly about peace.

In Malcolm X's speech “the Ballot or the Bullet" he makes a strong critique of the civil rights movement. He goes on to boldly state that, "The entire civil-rights struggle needs a new interpretation, a broader interpretation. We need to look at the civil-rights thing from another angle-from the inside..." Not only Malcolm feels that African Americans are being stopped from gaining equal opportunity but also that he and his fellow Africans are victims of Americanism. Malcolm even makes claims about the senators and congressmen. He suggests that it is in fact these people that are violating the constitutional amendments that guarantee individuals of that state or providence the right to vote. He goes on to urge individuals to not vote Democrat. He even takes it a step further by suggesting that making a difference through the ballot, this will be effective in gaining freedom in relation to passive protest.  Not only Malcolm believes that an individual should resort to violence against "criminals" but then goes on to discuss the importance of human rights and its relation to the struggle for freedom and equality: " Human rights are your God given rights, something you were born with, and they are recognized by all nations of the earth." Malcolm X believes that in order for African Americans to gain freedom they should better educate themselves and realize the power of their vote. However, he also suggests that sometimes violence is needed to make a point and ultimately gain control over the "criminals." In order to successfully make progress, the world would be made aware of how bloody Uncle Sam’s hands really were.

La beca salario universitaria requerirá aprobarlo todo

El Gobierno prometió no meter la tijera en las becas generales, pero ha endurecido las condiciones de acceso, con lo que se abre otra vía al recorte. El Plan Nacional de Reformas hecho público ayer establece que los universitarios con beca salario solo se conservarán si el estudiante aprueba el 100% de los créditos matriculados. Este tipo de beca incluye el pago de la matrícula y una ayuda mensual y está pensada para que los hijos de las familias más pobres no dejen los estudios tras superar la formación obligatoria. El porcentaje en el caso de Ingeniería o Arquitectura se suaviza al 85%. La nota mínima para acceder a esta ayuda será un 6. Los cambios entran en vigor el próximo curso.

En general, para acceder a la condición de becario en primero de carrera es necesaria una nota del 5,5 y para renovar esta ayuda los estudiantes deben aprobar el 90% de los créditos matriculados, con excepción de los alumnos de Arquitectura e Ingeniería, que deben superar el 65% de los créditos.

Hasta ahora se exigía una media de 5 para obtener la ayuda y la superación del 80% de los créditos para conservarla, excepto en las Ingenierías, donde es necesario el 60%. Además, no se becará la segunda matrícula de una misma asignatura, es decir, los suspensos.

El Ejecutivo también quiere impulsar la formación profesional y reducir el peso del bachillerato. Su objetivo es un descenso anual, a partir del próximo curso, un 1,9% el número de alumnos de bachillerato y suba un 8% el de ciclos formativos de grado medio.

UNIT 4 - LINGUISTICS

WHAT IS SEMANTICS?

    -          DEFINITION: it is the study of meaning in human language, from morphemes to textual contexts. It distinguishes among the different ways in which language means. Meaning is a very complex and multifaceted notion, so we need to develop a precise way of talking about meaning. The TRUTH depends on words (whether or not the speaker is in fact telling the truth). Then, there are sentences that are semantically ANOMALOUS and others that present a CONTRADICTION although they are well formed syntactically. Because of words with distinct meanings, there are also AMBIGUOUS sentences, and finally, the sentences out of context are VAGUE.

     -          WORD MEANING: A language is a system of symbols that represents objects and states of affairs in the world. Meaning has two aspects that are complementary:

    o   INFORMATION CONTENT of language: the relationship that holds between language and the world (called REFERENCE).

    o   Meaning is also a cognitive and psychological phenomenon. The MENTAL REPRESENTATION is called SENSE, which is the meaning of words in relation to other words with a language (acception).

    -          DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION:

    o   DENOTATION: is liked with referential/information meaning, which involves world entities. However, there are words which have no referents in the real world even though they make sense.

    o   CONNOTATION: is a set of associations that a word’s use can evoke.

    -          EXTENSION AND INTENSION: There are expressions that share the same referent at a given point but differ in meaning, so the impossibility of equating an element’s meaning with its referents has led to a distinction between:

    o   EXTENSION: corresponds to the set of entities of an expression that constitute a category.

    o   INTENSION: corresponds to the inherent sense, the attributes that define an expression.

    -          SENSE RELATIONS: There are many ways for words to be related semantically:

    o   HYPONYMY (logical relations): is a relation of inclusion where words are organized in a taxonomical way: “X is a type of Y”. Subordinate terms are called HYPONYMS, whereas superordinate terms are called HYPERNYMS. Hyponymous relationships stack very well: cohyponyms are SISTER TERMS (at the same level of the hierarchy) but hyponymy may exist also at more than one level.

    o   PART/WHOLE RELATIONSHIP (Meronymy/ontological relations): is found in pairs where the referent of the first term is part of the reference  of the second term: “X is part of Y”.

    o   SYNONYMY: are words that have the same meaning in some or all contexts: “term A is synonymous with term B if every referent of A is a referent of B and vice versa”. True synonymy is inexistent (words can be similar in their meanings but differ in context), so there are different restrictions: COLLOCATIONAL, SYNTACTIC, REGISTER, GEOGRAPHICAL, CONNOTATIVE AND CONTEMPORAL.

    o   ANTONYMY: denotes opposition in meaning and it is a binary relationship at a time. The prototypical antonyms are adjectives, but nouns, adverbs and verbs also illustrate different kinds of oppositeness. There are distinct types:

-          SIMPLE/COMPLEMENTARY antonyms: stand in a “either/or” relationship

-          GRADABLE antonyms: can be placed at the two ends of a scale with a number of intermediate notions,

-          REVERSES: describe a situation which can be approached from two different ends.

-          CONVERSES: describe the same relation or action from a different perspective.

-     POLYSEMY and HOMONYMY: refer to similarities. There are different types of homonymy: HOMOGRAPHS (same spelling and pronunciation, different unrelated meanings), HETEROGRAPHS (same spelling, different pronunciation and unrelated meaning), HOMOPHONES (same pronunciation, different unrelated senses and spelling) and HOMONYMS (same written or spoken form, different unrelated senses).

On the other hand, POLYSEMIC words have related meanings (a common source) but multiple senses, only one realized in any particular context.

    -          APPROACHES TO MEANING:

    o   REFERENTIAL APPROACH: Meaning should be sought in the extra-linguistic entity that an expression pick out of the referent (objects or situations) there is an objective world that can be designed objectively and precisely by words.

    o   COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS: is a semantic decomposition. For example, it analyses types of nouns in terms of semantic features, involving binary values (closed set of clear-cut features). Semantic properties cover sense relations.

    o   CONCEPTUAL APROACH: relates meaning to mental concepts that don’t have to correspond to objects in the world (no closed sets of features). It studies how our conceptual system is organized and some of its concepts are: FUZZY CONCEPTS and PROTOTYPES (have an internal structure).

    o   METAPHOR: Concepts make a giant network, and these associations involve metaphors (the understanding of one concept in terms of another). They have a prominent place in the conceptual system since we use language to talk about various abstract notions (emotions or psychological states in spatial terms). Many concepts are structured and understood metaphorically to our physical and cultural experience.

UNIT 3 - LINGUISTICS

WHAT IS SYNTAX?

-          DEFINITION: establishes the set of rules that capture regularities and specify which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which not, as well as how different combinations carry different meaning. A SENTENCE is a sequence of words which is made up of individual groups of words which from patterns. Spoken and written units don’t overlap because follow a linear order. A MESSAGE depends not only on the meaning but also on syntactic structure. There are three important concepts:

    -          RANK: is a quality measured in terms of the higher or lower position in importance of the six meaningful units: TEXT, SENTENCE, CLAUSE, GROUP or PHRASE, WORD, and MORPHEMES.

    -          CONSTITUENCY: is the relationship among units to make up bigger units. It is indicated by bracketing or by drawing a tree diagram.

    -          CLASS: is divided into lexical, phrasal and casual categories:

    -          LEXICAL CATEGORIES: are the parts of speech divided into two groups:

    o   CONTENT WORDS: are open lexical categories because new words are added to them all the time:

-          NOUNS: refer to things, substances, people, places, actions and events. They can be counted, occur with articles and demonstratives, and be modified by adjectives.

-          VERBS: refer to actions, events, processes and states of being. They can express time and work with auxiliaries. There are four types: simple (make), prepositional (look after), phrasal (turn it down) and phrasal-prepositional verbs (run out of).

-          ADJETIVES: describe the things and ideas that nouns refer to. They can have comparative and superlative, be used with the verb to be, and be modified by adverbs.

-          ADVERBS: express manner, describe the speaker’s attitude and indicate temporal frequency. They can be modified and modify adjectives, verbs, other adverbs, and entire sentences.

    o   FUNCTION WORDS: are closed categories that don’t allow new members:

-          DETERMINERS: express definiteness, indefiniteness, possession and quantity. PREPOSITIONS: include instrument, possessor, and spatial and temporal relations.

-          AUXILIARY VERBS: express notions of time, necessity, possibility and so on.

-          PRONOUNS: refer to particular nouns or noun phrases.

-          CONJUNCTIONS: link together different elements within a phrase or sentence.

    -          PHRASAL CATEGORIES: describe how words can combine in units smaller than clauses and sentences. There are five phrases: NOMINAL (NP), VERBAL (VP), ADJECTIVAL (ADJP), ADVERBIAL (ADVP) and PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP can include simple or complex prepositions). The main elements are the HEAD and the MODIFIERS, which can be pre-modifiers (specifiers) and post-modifiers/qualifiers (complements).

    -          CAUSAL CATEGORIES: contain a subject and a predicate. Clauses are of two types:

    o   INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: can stand alone and it is a finite clause. It is a SIMPLE sentence when it consists of one independent clause; and a COMPOUND sentence when it consists of more than one independent clause.

    o   DEPENDENT or SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: occurs in conjunction with an independent clause. It is non-finite clause that can be an infinite, a -ing, or a past participle clause. It is a COMPLEX sentence when it contains one or more dependent clauses.

    -          SENTENCE STRUCTURE: Syntax specifies what functions their constituents have in sentence structure. The simple sentence has two main CONSTITUENTS:

    o   SUBJECTS (syntactically obligatory in English)

    o   VERBS/PREDICATORS (syntactically and semantically obligatory in the Predicate). Some verbs change meaning depending on other OBLIGATORY ELEMENTS:

-          OBJECTS: refer to the participants; there is no concordance with the subject but they can become subjects; can be realized and substituted by pronouns; and are of three types: DIRECT O (Do), INDIRECT O (Io) and PREPOSITIONAL O (Po).

-          COMPLEMENTS: predicate something and it is the contrary to objects. They are of three types: SUBJECT C (Cs: the fish smells bad), OBJECT C (Co: I painted the door red) and PREDICATOR C (Cp: they crept into the cave, Sam married Susan, the jar contains nails)

    o   ADVERVERBIALS (no obligatory elements): modify verbs and are made up of an adverb, an adverb phrase, a noun phrase or a prepositional phrase. There are three types: ADJUNCT (last year), CONJUNCT (therefore) and DISJUNCT (unfortunately).

    -          APPROACHES TO SYNTAX: Syntactic analysis differs greatly from one school to another:

o   GENERATIVE/TRANSFORMATIVE VIEW: typological studies and disagreement with abstractness.

o   COGNITIVE and FUNCTIONAL VIEWS: communicative functions and usage-based approaches.

UNIT 2 - LINGUISTICS

WHAT IS MORPHOLOGY?

-          DEFINITION: is concerned the study of word-formation and word-structure. It is the ability to construct and interpret words that must be stored in the LEXICON (mental dictionary) of language users. The HUMAN VOCABULARY is a dynamic system. The morphological units are words and morphemes.

-          WORDS: are the minimum free forms (also known as FREE MORPHEMES that can be decomposed into smaller morphemes). There are simple and complex words (a base m. + affixes). Words have different senses:

    o   WORD-FORMS: can be content words (with cognitive meaning like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) or function words (with grammatical role like prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions and articles).

   o   LEXEMES: are vocabulary items that may have different meaning (homonymy).

   o   LEMMAS: are lexical items with meaning plus certain syntactic and morphological properties.

-          MORPHEMES: are the smallest meaningful units in a language. BOUND MORPHEMES are always attached to a free or base morpheme. There two kinds:

    o   INFLECTIONAL M.: act as grammatical markers: plural -s, 3º p.-s, -ing, past/p.participle -ed, -er, -est.

   o   DERIVATIONAL M./AFFIXES: involve a change of the syntactic category of the free morpheme.

-          WORD FORMATION: a ROOT is the unit (normally content words) to which other morphemes may be added to make new words. Then, BASES are any word or form to which affixes may be added in word-building processes.

    o   AFFIXATION: is a process that adds affixes. It has two categories:

-          INFLECTION: consists of suffixes (attached to the front of a base m.) rather than prefixes (attached to the end of a base m.) The few inflectional endings don’t usually alter syntactic behavior.

-          DERIVATION: is when there is a change of meaning or syntactic category of the base word. Derivational endings create constantly new words.

   o   CONVERSION: this process is known as “zero derivation” because the word-form remains the same, but with a different lexical category.

   o   STRESS PLACEMENT: in disyllabic words, a base can undergo a change in the placement of stress.

   o   COMPOUNDING: is a process that forms new words but from two o more independent words. Compounds are headed (one of the words is syntactically dominant). When the head determines the general meaning is an endocentric compound.

   o   INTERNAL CHANGE: the “ablaut” is often used for vowel alternations that mark grammatical contrasts (Ex: sing-sang)

   o   CLIPPING: is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting syllables.

   o   BLENDS: are words that are created from non-morphemic parts of two existing items (ex: breakfast+lunch>brunch).

   o   BACKFORMATION: creates a new word (normally an agent) by removing a real affix from another word (ex: adding –or or –er to a verb).

   o   ACRONYMS: are formed by taking the initial  letters of the words in a phrase and reading them as a word (ex: UNICEF)

   o   ONOMATOPOEIA: are words whose sound represents an aspect of the thing that they name (ex: buzz)